My Writing

By Wilson O.

A cross-sectional study of 5147 children conducted by Professor Lauren Whetstone, Research Associate Susan Morrissey and Professor Doyle Cummings, all of the School of Medicine at East Carolina University, confirmed that, even in the middle school age group, overweight children with a body image obsession were more likely to have suicidal thoughts than other children who perceived themselves to be underweight or overweight. Of particular concern was the finding that middle school females reported suicidal thinking and behavior more often than did males (Whetstone, Morrissey, & Cummings, 2007).

The study also established that the relation between race and weight status was not significantly associated with suicidal thoughts and actions. This hypothesis was, however, proven false when a study was conducted amongst obese black and white adult women. Generally, unlike their white counterparts, black women are satisfied with their larger size and do not apologize for it. Some studies suggest that African American women perceive their larger body size as more appealing and receive less social pressure to be slim, which could reduce motivation to lose weight. Comments such as “My husband say[s] ‘you don’t need to lose that weight’”, and “Skinny people look unhealthy and obese people don’t” are fairly common among obese black women. It is worth noting that apparel companies have been slow to develop clothing for obese black women and to target these women as a market. As a result, obese black women have to special order clothes and pay extra to alter them for a custom fit.

Perhaps the reason why white women are more obsessed with the thin ideal is because the trend towards marketing products is directed at white females more than at any other racial or ethnic group. A prime example is the Barbie doll. These dolls have been widely criticized for portraying an unrealistic body image: If Barbie were a real woman she would have blonde hair, a 39-inch bust, a 19-inch waist and 33-inch hips. If Barbie’s body dimensions are reflections of what society considers ideal, then girls who do not meet that ideal may perceive themselves as failures and feel undervalued. Contrary to the Barbie slogan, “Be who you wanna be”, it may be the ultimate message these girls receive is that their utmost desire should be to grow up to look pretty and go to the beach.

Sub-Saharan African men are often drawn to well-endowed women because, in their cultures, that is often the ideal of beauty. Voluptuous women were traditionally considered healthy and fertile in these cultures. Being “large” also meant that a woman had the potential to be a good provider because it was she who planted and harvested the food for the family. The traditional African woman was a hard worker; she toiled in the fields for hours, sold produce in the market and took care of the young and old. The physicality of these daily activities contributed to African women’s healthy physiques.

Scores of studies teach us about the impact of body image dissatisfaction on children. The outcomes range from depression to suicidal thoughts. As these studies show, children are vulnerable to body image dissatisfaction at an early age; hence it is vital for parents, and not the media and toy industries, to be positive role models. Children should be encouraged to pursue a variety of activities, especially during their leisure time. They should also be encouraged to develop healthy eating and exercise habits that do not border on severe dieting and over-exercising. Another way to offset future perceptions of negative body image would be for parents to control the TV content their children are exposed to at home by utilizing V-chip technology. In addition, watching TV programs with their children and commenting on the content’s meaning would reduce the likelihood of the children acting out inappropriate scenes and acquiring unrealistic body image perceptions. It should be made clear to the children that they will be unconditionally loved and successful in their lives, no matter how much they weigh or what they look like.

References

Whetstone, L., et al. (2007, February). Children at Risk: The Association Between Perceived Weight Status and Suicidal Thoughts and Attempts in Middle School Youth. Journal of School Health, 77(2), 59 – 66.

The writing on this blog is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Wilson O.) as the writer.

By Wilson O.

As a result of the efforts by European missionaries, who viewed African cultures as less superior to theirs and were particularly interested in replacing African religions with European religious doctrines, indigenous African forms of worship began to crumble. The Europeans saw African traditional worship as primitive ritualistic practice. To be specific, “1520-1920 was dominated by the principle ‘no salvation outside the church.’ Baptism was a way of saving souls from damnation. Africans were victims of a paganism widely considered diabolical. They must be converted as soon as possible - though this process did not really begin energetically until the late 19th century. It was the time of colonization and heroic missionary endeavor”¹. Note that I am limiting myself to discussing the arrival of Western Christianity on the African continent in this essay. I will not be talking about Eastern Christianity, in the form of the Orthodox Church, which spread through Northern and North Eastern Africa during the earliest centuries of the faith.

One cannot understand the role of Western Christianity in Africa without understanding its connection to the slave trade. In the words of American Professor Melvin E. Page, “Africa was devastated by the slave trade, an integral part of imperialism from 1400 to 1800”². Most of the slaves coming out of Africa were from West Africa and Central Africa. The slave traders generally obtained slaves through raids and trading with African chiefs. The reason why the slave trade did not penetrate the interior of Africa was because of their fear of disease and fierce opposition from the African warriors who lived in the interior.

When the slave trade was underway in the African continent, there were serious calculated attempts to convert the African masses into Christians. The newcomers viewed African approaches to worship as barbaric as meaningless. While there were successes in terms of conversions and the introduction of Western education and medicine to the African public, religion was a half-success story. Many Africans did not completely abandon their religions, most of which were ritualistic and polytheistic, but instead incorporated Christianity into them.

Several notable highlights mark the beginning of Christian activity in some African countries: in 1498 the first Christians were reported in Kenya; in 1499 Zanzibar witnessed the arrival of Portuguese Augustinian missionaries; in 1506 missionary work began in Mozambique; in 1518 the first black indigenous bishop of Western Christianity was from the Congo; in 1687 French missionaries began working in Côte d'Ivoire; in 1738 Moravian missionary George Schmidt settled in South Africa and worked with the Khoikhoi (whose numbers are now severely depleted); and in 1768 five German missionaries arrived at the Gold Coast (present day Ghana)³.

In spreading the ministry it was a common occurrence for many missionaries to target African kings, chiefs and other leaders high in the hierarchy of African society before targeting the general population: in 1489 the Wolof king, Behemoi, was baptized in Senegal; in 1491 Congo witnessed the arrival of its first group of missionaries and subsequently its king was baptized and a church built in the royal capital; in 1655 Jinga, the princess of Matamba in Angola was converted and she then summoned more missionaries^ibid.

The methodology that the Europeans used in propagating Christianity can be summarized as falling into two distinct paradigms: “The first paradigm, "mission by diffusion"¹, makes the missionary culture the inseparable carrier of the message. This implies that the message, which is carried to other peoples and cultures, cannot be extracted from the culture of the carrier, who in this case is the missionary. Indigenous languages and traditions are in an anomalous position as they are considered profane over and against the religious language and culture of the missionary, which are to be implanted in the receiving society”⁴.

“Mission by translation” is the second paradigm, and is designated as “the vintage mark of Christianity” for the following reason: it “is characterized as making the recipient culture the true and final locus of the proclamation. In this paradigm the message needs to be translated into the language and cultural context of those who receive the message. Consequently, there is no holy language nor a God-chosen cultural tradition to be implanted in other cultures. The recipient culture is destigmatized, while the culture of the message bearer is relativized” ^ibid.

It should be noted that the conversion of Africans to Christianity was not solely relegated to white European missionaries. Plantation slaves, soldiers in the British army during the American War, farmers and even squatters² of African descent and Christian converts, as early as 1792, all played a unique role in furthering the spread of Christianityin mainland Africa⁵.

The introduction of Christianity was characterized by both hits and misses. On the one hand, missionaries have been credited for promoting literacy, education, and hope and for giving opportunities to disadvantaged members of society such as orphans and lepers. On the other hand, the coming of the missionaries is said to have repressed and demonized African cultures. The European newcomers imposed Christian doctrines and, under the guise of salvation, enslaved Africans, broke up millions of families and raped many black women who bore mixed race children.

One of the largest stumbling blocks that missionaries faced in trying to preach to Africans was communication. In addition to the obvious language barrier, the majority of traditional black African cultures did not have a standardized script. Hence, learning the local dialects was difficult.

Even after missionaries had learned the local dialects, there remained the difficult task of trying to find new words to explain concepts that did not seem to exist in the African languages. For instance the concepts of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit as a living entity were new and totally foreign concepts to the African audiences. Forcing them to embrace these concepts when they had a different belief system was difficult, and must also have seemed pointless to the Africans.

Many practitioners of traditional African religions worshipped a high god usually associated with the high skies, and other deities that were associated with natural features such as mountains, rivers and trees. Africans also looked to witchdoctors, shamans and other specialists in the sacred to use their divine powers to contact the spirits of ancestors and recently deceased relatives. In addition these people used their powers to bless and curse the living. Many African religions did not subscribe to scriptures of any kind, relying instead on oral transmission, visual symbols and rituals.

In many sub-Saharan African countries, there are several churches that subscribe to traditional African religious practices. Other than formal churches, there are two types of such churches: those founded by missionaries and those found by Africans themselves.

The issue of missionaries trying to convince indigenous Africans to remain monogynous must have been contentious, to say the least. Polygyny is a deeply rooted part of African culture and religion. Marriage, it goes without saying is very critical in African society. Since it is forbidden in Catholicism for pastors and bishops to marry, the Catholic Church in particular did not have much success in converting many Africans to their religion during these earlier centuries. The Protestant Church had more success in converting Africans who then became clergy because it allowed for monogamous marriages by the clergy. Interestingly, many African churches identified themselves as Protestant yet permitted their priests and bishops to marry more than one wife, a practice that is still common today. These are the churches that I referred to earlier as practicing Africanized forms of Christianity.

References

3. Christian Missions and World Evangelism Resources, “Missions Time Line” http://home.snu.edu/~HCULBERT/line.htm
2. Antonio de Figueiredo, “Colonialism is Back in Fashion,” New African (2004):22.
5. Caleb Oladipo, “Piety and Politics in African Christianity: The Roles of the Church and the Democratization Process,” Journal of Church and State 45 (2003): 1-24.
1. “Developing a theology tied to African cultures. (Synod for Africa) (Cover Story),” National Catholic Reporter (1994):1
4. Hinne Wagenaar, “Babel, Jerusalem and Kumba: Missiological Reflections on Genesis, 11:1-9 and Acts 2:1-13,” International Review of Mission 92 (2003): 406-21.
 

By Wilson O.

Oedipus Rex, a tragedy, was written by Sophocles at a time when Greek drama was a popular form of entertainment. So popular were plays that they were presented in outdoor theatres as part of religious festivals and in the vicinity of religious structures such as temples. Oedipus Rex must have been well-received because it fit in with the premise of religion being intricately connected to every part of Greek daily life - people wanted to know the will of the Gods and were obsessed with the fulfillment of prophecies. Belief in predestination might also explain why war and conflict became an integral part of Greek life; the warriors’ acceptance of predestination spurred them on with not only selfless acts of bravery, but a readiness to engage the enemy head-on, thus quickly resolving the fate of a battle with as few casualties as possible.

The first Greek dramas were tragedies that contained elements of human suffering in which the hero of the play (based on myths and legends that the audiences were familiar with) suffered at his own hands, resulting in death. Oedipus Rex has these components: Oedipus, a king, trying to seek the murderer of another king years ago, finds not only that he is indeed the murderer, but that he killed his father, married his mother and even bore children with her. In the end, his mother kills herself and Oedipus gouges his eyes out, going blind, and demands to be banished from his kingdom.

The theme of predestination resonates in Oedipus Rex. Oedipus is predestined to kill his father and marry his mother. In addition, subtle references point to his real identity.  At one point, Jocasta, Oedipus’ wife, talks about having bound her child’s feet. Oedipus is at this point unaware that he is married to the woman who gave birth to him. Notably, he does not stop to think about his own swollen feet, or the fact that his name means ‘swollen feet’.

Both Oedipus and his wife Jocasta talk about having been told of the prophecy. Oedipus hears that King Laius was killed at a place where three roads met. Even though he knows that he killed a stranger at such a place and that he became king shortly after, Oedipus does not consider the possibility that he could have inadvertently killed his own father. On hearing that Oedipus was actually adopted as a child, Jocasta pleads with him to abandon his quest for the truth but Oedipus misreads her pleas as embarrassment that he was possibly born of slaves. Jocasta cannot bear to have the revelation of the truth take place in her presence, so she leaves the scene and kills herself in grief. 

Blindness, both literal and symbolic, recurs through the play, Oedipus Rex. Ironically, it is the blind prophet, Tiresias, who sees Oedipus’ downfall and even mocks Oedipus for literally not using his eyes:  “And since you have reproached me with my blindness- I say you have your sight and do not see what evils are about you, nor in what home you are dwelling” (15).

Tiresias continues his admonishment of Oedipus: “Soon from this land shall drive you, staking grim. Your mother’s and father’s two-edged curse, with eyes then dark, though they look proudly now” (16).

To me it is incredible that Oedipus, who years previously easily answered the riddle posed by the sphinx who threatened all who wished to enter Thebes, is unable to connect the dots when it comes to the riddle of his own destiny. Tiresias himself asks Oedipus incredulously, “Were you not excellent at solving riddles?” (16).

As the story nears its conclusion Oedipus makes an about-turn; though he finally sees the truth, he wants to escape it. He gouges out his eyes so that he will not see the truth with them.

Another theme in the play is accountability. Oedipus makes a dramatic vow to find the killer of King Laius and urges his people to be relentless in their pursuit of the killer: “Whichever of you knows the man by whom Laius the son of Labdacus was slain [. . .] I bid that man shew the whole truth to me, for he shall suffer no disparagement except to quit the land, unscathed” (9). 

Oedipus goes even further, accusing the killer of being poisonous to society: “I order that of this land […] none entertain him, none accost him, none cause him to share in prayers or sacrifice [. . .] but all men from their houses banish him, since it is he contaminates us all” (9).

In the end, when it becomes clear that he is the guilty party, instead of being courageous Oedipus prefers to face the truth in the dark.  Yet he should be an accountable king and serve the best interests of his people by stepping down.

While it was the incestuous actions of Oedipus that plunged the kingdom of Thebes into misery, famine and infertility, it is also true that, prior to this period of devastation, the people of Thebes enjoyed prosperous times under Oedipus. Thus, it is arguable that, given a chance, they might have pardoned him.

Oedipus does the greatest wrong by being arrogant toward the prophet Tiresias, a messenger of the gods. Thus, he indirectly ridicules the same gods who had blessed him with the courage and wisdom to slay the Sphinx and rule a kingdom.

Oedipus Rex has relevance for us today. It underlines the paradox that is human nature- good and evil will always coexist in one entity. Ultimately I believe that Oedipus Rex reminds us to be humble, respectful and take life with a grain of salt; for who knows what will happen to any one of us tomorrow?

Reference          

Sophocles, ed. Oedipus Rex. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1991. Print

The writing on this blog is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Wilson O.) as the writer.

By Wilson O.

Black moon, moment of truth,
Gazing at the glorious heavens. . .sensing,
Sensing, knowing that God did not create those shining stars,
For humankind just to gaze at,
Black moon, moment of truth.

Souls have awakened to human existence,
Dwelling in natural innocence,
As did Adam and Eve before tasting the fruit of knowledge,
Becoming self-conscious, begetting human sacrilege.

Now than ever before, eons after the days of yore,
Survival strains our bonds, no longer as one do we dwell,
And we became more than Cain and Abel,
Drowning, enclosed in inhumanity, victims of life,
Black moon, moment of truth.

(Previously published on www.poetry.com)

The writing on this blog is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Wilson O.) as the writer.

By Wilson O.

Photograph as accessed through Professor Hany Farid's page on "Photo Tampering Throughout History."

In my opinion the mass media is responsible for the prevalence of distorted views of body image in society today. This is because we encounter mass media all over- television, billboards, magazines and so on- and the media prominently showcases images of “perfect bodies” that are unattainable for most people. The key to developing a healthy body image lies in realizing that many of these images are digitally altered and primarily created so that the cosmetic and diet industries can reap massive profits.

Thanks to the highly publicized images of movie stars and models with “ideal bodies”, many women equate being beautiful with being thin. Furthermore, there is an overwhelming expectation in society for females to be beautiful and desirable. Sadly, many girls and women end up going to extreme lengths to look like their stars. Little do they realize that these ‘stars’ have teams of professionals who are paid to make them look “beautiful”.

With recent technological advances it is possible to digitally alter images to make slim women look even thinner and free their skins from the slightest flaws. Making young people aware of these techniques would go some way in helping them understand that the beauty standards to which they hold themselves are not actually achievable in reality.  

There has to be a conscious effort to see these ideal body images in the media for what they are– hyped-up fads. It does not make sense for those beauty standards to be imposed on women who are, on average, naturally larger, heavier and older than the skinny models. It would be far wiser to make reasonable and healthy lifestyle decisions to keep one’s body fit and healthy than it would be to waste time, energy and resources pursuing the mirage that is the “perfect body."

The writing on this blog is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License. Please feel free to use my writing for non-commercial purposes and do credit my name (Wilson O.) as the writer.